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ENVIRONMENT, WELL-BEING, AND BEHAVIOR |
Russell Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Athens, Georgia 30677
1 Corresponding author: eline{at}saa.ars.usda.gov
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Key Words: Campylobacter • litter treatment • Salmonella • aluminum sulfate • sodium bisulfate
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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High ammonia levels evolved from litter inside broiler houses promote stressful conditions for broilers, which may lead to respiratory diseases, decreased immunity, increased susceptibility to avian and human pathogen colonization, and a decrease in overall bird health. Control of ammonia volatilization from litter has been demonstrated by various poultry litter treatments (Moore et al., 1996). In addition to ammonia control, it was hypothesized that the decrease in litter pH and moisture levels caused by litter acidification products would create an environment less hospitable to the human pathogens associated with poultry, specifically, Campylobacter and Salmonella. These studies were conducted to determine the effect of 2 acidifying litter treatment chemicals commonly applied for ammonia control, aluminum sulfate and sodium bisulfate, on Salmonella and Campylobacter populations associated with broiler chickens during production.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Litter Treatments
Litter treatments were applied as recommended by the manufacturer’s instructions. Application rates were selected to be slightly higher than those suggested for typical ammonia-control purposes, but not so high as to be economically unfeasible. Sodium bisulfate was surface-applied using a manual spreader at an initial rate of 3.63 kg/9.3 m2 (8 lb/100 ft2), followed at 28 d by a second application of 4.54 kg/9.3 m2 (10 lb/100 ft2). The second application occurred when the flock was present in the house. Aluminum sulfate was applied in a single application of 9.07 kg/9.3 m2 (20 lb/100 ft2) and was then lightly raked into the litter. Both products are activated by litter moisture. To help maintain product activity for an extended period, the aluminum sulfate was manufactured in a manner as to produce at least 3 different sizes of granules, the largest being the last to be activated.
Sample Collection
A variety of samples were collected from each broiler house, including fecal, litter, environmental drag swabs (Solar Biologicals Inc., Ogdensburg, NY), chick transport pads (chick transport tray paper liners), and on-farm broiler carcass rinses. Litter samples were collected for pH purposes only and were the only samples not evaluated for the presence of Campylobacter or Salmonella. All samples were stored on ice until time of laboratory analysis ( < 2 h).
Fecal samples were collected approximately 2 wk before chick placement (to determine baseline Campylobacter and Salmonella prevalence in each broiler house from previous flock shedding) and during production at wk 2, 4, 5, and, if possible, the day before slaughter (about wk 6). Final sampling time was dependent on the projected market date of the broilers. At each sampling time, fresh fecal samples were collected (n = 20) directly from the litter surface. Depending on the size of the fecal material, 1 or more droppings were placed inside each tube to assure a minimum of 5 g for each sample. Fecal samples were placed inside sterile 50-mL screw-capped conical centrifuge tubes.
Litter samples were obtained before litter treatment, 24 h after litter treatment, and again at each fecal sampling date. Composite litter samples were obtained by collecting from 5 different areas inside each broiler house. Surface litter, no deeper than 2 cm, was scooped with a gloved hand, placed into a zip closure bag, and massaged to mix thoroughly. Water samples were collected on post-treatment dates directly from the waterlines in each broiler house by placing a sterile plastic zip-closure bag around a nipple and pressing to release approximately 20 mL of water.
Drag swab samples were collected on wk 2 from each broiler house. Triplicate drag swabs were unrolled into 5 x 5 cm squares and drug across the litter surface to cover as much of the area of the poultry house floor as possible. The drag swabs were pulled down the outside of a given house’s waterline, up the inside of the opposite waterline, and then completed in a zig-zag pattern through the middle of the house, sampling down and back (approximate 10-min drag time). When the dragging was complete, the swabs were removed from the strings and placed into sterile plastic biohazard bags with the twist closures supplied with the kit.
Chick transport pad samples were obtained only on the day of chick placement to determine potential pathogen levels brought in with the chicks from the hatchery. From each broiler house, 20 chick pads were gathered from chick hatching trays during placement of chicks and placed individually into sterile plastic bags (Cryovac Sealed Air Corp., Duncan, SC).
On-farm carcass rinses were obtained the day before slaughter to assess pathogen levels on broilers scheduled for processing. A total of 10 broilers from each house were collected and humanely euthanized by electrocution, using approved methods and equipment in accordance with the Animal Care and Use Committee guidelines. Each carcass was then placed into a sterile Cryovac bag and rinsed with 400 mL of sterile buffered peptone water (BPW). Bags were shaken manually for 2 min, after which time the rinse was retained inside the bags for further analysis, and the carcasses were discarded.
Temperature and humidity levels were monitored using Cox Tracer recorders (Cox Recorders, Belmont, NC) that had been placed inside each broiler house at the day of chick placement and removed on the day of processing. The recorders were hung on feed lines as close to bird height as possible and away from fans or heaters.
Media
For Campylobacter enrichment and enumeration, Bolton enrichment broth with antibiotics (VIDAS Campylobacter product insert, bioMerieux Vitek Inc., Hazelwood, MO) and Campy-Line agar (CLA; Line, 2001) were used. On CLA, Campylobacter colonies appeared flat or slightly raised, shiny (as though they were wet), and deep magenta in color. Confirmation of species was done by wet mount analysis using a phase contrast microscope and latex agglutination INDX kits (Integrated Diagnostics Inc., Baltimore, MD).
For Salmonella recovery, preenrichment in BPW, followed by a series of enrichments in tetrathionate broth (TT) and Rappaport-Vassiliadis broth, was used. The plating media used for Salmonella enumeration and differentiation were brilliant green sulfa (BGS) and modified Lys–Fe agar (MLIA); biochemical characterizations were obtained using triple-sugar iron and Lys–Fe agar slants. Salmonella colonies appeared lactose-negative on BGS, and hydrogen sulfide-positive on MLIA. Suspect Salmonella colonies were removed from BGS and MLIA plates (2 per plate) and stabbed or streaked into both triple-sugar iron and Lys–Fe agar slants for biochemical confirmation; poly-O antisera kits (Becton Dickinson and Co., Franklin Lakes, NJ) were used for final serological identification. Latex agglutination kits (Oxoid Ltd., Basingstoke, Hampshire, UK) were used when necessary for additional serological confirmation.
Laboratory Analysis of Chick Pads
Chick pads were analyzed for the presence of both Campylobacter and Salmonella. Bags containing chick pads were filled with 500 mL of sterile BPW and then massaged by hand for approximately 1 min. This process did not break up the pad itself, but it did release much of the organic material into the suspension. For Campylobacter recovery, 30 mL of this suspension was placed into sterile 75-cm2 vented and canted tissue culture flasks containing 2 x Bolton broth with antibiotics. The flasks were then placed at 42° C for 24 h under microaerobic conditions (10% CO2, 5% O2, 85% N2). Following incubation, plating to CLA was performed by surface streaking a quarter of the agar surface with a broth sample-saturated swab and then streaking the remaining area of the plate surface for isolation, using a sterile loop. Plates were incubated microaerobically at 42° C for 48 h. Typical colonies were confirmed, as previously described.
Salmonella isolation was achieved by directly incubating the remaining solution with the pad overnight at 37° C. Following this preenrichment, 1 mL was aseptically transferred to 9 mL of TT broth and incubated aerobically for 24 h at 37° C. After the TT broth incubation, 1 mL of the TT broth was aseptically removed and transferred to 9 mL of sterile Rappaport-Vassiliadis broth and incubated aerobically for 24 h at 37° C. After incubation, sterile swabs were used to streak a quadrant of both BGS agar plates and MLIA plates, and a sterile loop was used to streak for isolation. Typical colonies were confirmed, as previously described.
Laboratory Analysis of Fecal Samples
Fecal samples were weighed and diluted to 3 x the weight with sterile BPW and vortexed to homogenize thoroughly. Once a fecal slurry was achieved, a sterile swab was used to inoculate CLA by streaking 1 quadrant of the agar plate and then streaking for isolation across the remaining area of the plate, using a sterile disposable loop. Plates were incubated microaerobically at 42° C for 48 h. After incubation, CLA plates were examined for typical Campylobacter colonies, and suspect colonies were confirmed. The remaining slurry was incubated for preenrichment of Salmonella and then enriched and confirmed, as described previously.
Laboratory Analysis of Drag Swabs
Three milliliters of sterile BPW was added to each drag swab bag and then gently massaged by hand to distribute the fluid evenly throughout the swab. The swabs were then squeezed to remove approximately 2 mL of fluid into the bottom of the bag and aseptically placed into 25-cm2 sterile canted and vented tissue culture flasks containing 15 mL of sterile Bolton broth with antibiotics. Flasks were incubated microaerobically at 42° C for 24 h for recovery of campylobacters. After this time, sterile cotton-tipped applicators were used to inoculate a quadrant of a CLA plate, and sterile loops were used to streak for isolation. The plates were incubated microaerobically for 48 h at 42° C. The drag swab bags containing the remaining 2 mL of fluid were incubated for preenrichment of Salmonella and then processed, as described previously.
Laboratory Analysis of Carcass Rinse Samples
For enrichment of Campylobacter, 30 mL of on-farm carcass rinse fluid was removed from each bag and added to 30 mL of 2 x Bolton broth with antibiotics in sterile 75 cm2 vented and canted tissue culture flasks. Each rinse sample was also plated for enumeration of Campylobacter directly onto CLA. Enrichment flasks were incubated microaerobically for 24 h at 42° C, and plates were incubated microaerobically for 48 h at 42° C. Following enrichment flask incubation, plating to CLA was performed by surface streaking a quarter of the agar surface with a broth sample-saturated swab and streaking the plates for isolation, using a sterile loop. Plates were incubated microaerobically at 42° C for 48 h. The remaining carcass rinse fluid inside bags was incubated for preenrichment of Salmonella and handled as described previously.
Statistical Analysis
Group means and SEM were determined, and the results from the control and treated groups were compared using the t-test (SigmaStat, Jandel Scientific, San Rafael, CA).
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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. No Campylobacter was recovered from the pads used to line the trays in which the chicks were carried from the hatchery to the broiler houses. Fecal samples from both the treated and control houses also remained negative for Campylobacter until after the sampling at wk 2, at which time the data indicated a delay in the onset of Campylobacter colonization in the treated houses as compared with the control houses. For example, Campylobacter-contaminated fecal samples were found in 2 of the untreated control broiler houses at wk 4 when no positive samples were yet discovered in the treated houses. By wk 5, 4 of the control houses were positive for Campylobacter, and only 2 of the treated houses were positive. On each farm studied, Campylobacter was detected in the untreated control house before it was detected in the corresponding treated house. By the end of production at wk 6, however, all fecal samples from both control and treated houses were positive for Campylobacter.
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). Contrary to the negative results for Campylobacter, 95% or more of the chick pads were positive for Salmonella when the chicks were placed in the houses, and fecal samples were positive at the sampling time at wk 2. By the time the birds reached market age, there was no significant difference (P > 0.05) in the mean percentage of fecal samples positive for Salmonella from the treated (28% positive) and control (24% positive) houses.
The effects of aluminum sulfate on Campylobacter and Salmonella prevalence are presented in Table 2. The data indicated a slight delay in the onset of Campylobacter in the aluminum-treated houses as compared with the controls; similar to the trend observed in the sodium bisulfate-treated houses. At the sampling time at wk 2, Campylobacter-positive fecal samples were recovered from only 1 of the aluminum-treated houses, whereas, positive samples were recovered from 2 of the untreated control houses. By wk 4, 2 treated houses were positive for Campylobacter presence, and 3 control houses were positive. By the end of production, however, Campylobacter-positive samples were detected in 4 treated and 4 control houses. None of the chick pads were positive for Campylobacter; however, more than 90% of the pads were positive for Salmonella when the chicks were placed in the houses. There was no significant effect (P > 0.05) of aluminum sulfate treatment on Salmonella prevalence in the fecal samples collected throughout production (Table 2). When the birds reached market age, 33% of the untreated controls were positive for Salmonella, and 32% of the aluminum-treated birds were likewise positive.
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The populations of Campylobacter and incidence of Salmonella found at wk 6 on unprocessed carcass rinses are presented in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. Neither treatment was effective in reducing pathogen levels or incidence associated with this sample type. No significant difference (P > 0.05) in mean Campylobacter populations was observed between treated and control houses for either treatment; likewise, no significant effect on Salmonella populations was indicated (P > 0.05). These field-trial Salmonella results are similar to those observed by Pope and Cherry (2000), who reported that Salmonella populations in sodium bisulfate-treated houses were not significantly different (P > 0.05) from untreated controls.
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). However, the lowered-pH effect was lost rapidly. Though initially low, by wk 2, the pH of the treated litters was about pH 6, and by wk 4, the pH of the treated and control litters was not significantly different (about pH 7). Interestingly, no change in pH was observed when the litters were sampled at wk 6, even though the sodium bisulfate was reapplied at a slightly increased level of 4.54 kg/9.3 m2 (10 lb/100 ft2) just after the wk-4 sampling. The RH in the houses was normal for the summer season and ranged from 20 to 100%. As would be expected, the RH was lower during the heat of the day and increased at night when the temperatures dropped. The periods of high RH probably contributed to the rapid hydrolyzation of both chemicals investigated and the loss of the lowered pH effect.
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Increasing the amount of acidifying treatment of poultry litter could perhaps further delay the onset of Campylobacter colonization in broiler flocks, but it may not be economically feasible. Preventing rapid hydrolyzation of the chemicals by time-release encapsulation technologies or by increasing the granular size of the chemicals as applied might prolong the effect. Effective pathogen control will most likely involve a combination of interventions. Litter acidification may be a useful tool in future multifaceted intervention strategies.
Received for publication November 18, 2005. Accepted for publication May 4, 2006.
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REFERENCES |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Bailey, J. S., N. J. Stern, and N. A. Cox. 2000. Commercial field trial evaluation of mucosal starter culture to reduce Salmonella incidence in processed broiler carcasses. J. Food Prot. 63:867–870.[ISI][Medline]
Blankenship, L. C., J. S. Bailey, N. A. Cox, N. J. Stern, R. Brewer, and O. Williams. 1993. Two-step mucosal competitive exclusion flora treatment to diminish salmonellae in commercial broiler chickens. Poult. Sci. 72:1667–1672.[ISI][Medline]
Line, J. E. 2001. Development of a selective differential agar for isolation and enumeration of Campylobacter spp. J. Food Prot. 64:1711–1715.[ISI][Medline]
Line, J. E. 2002. Campylobacter and Salmonella populations associated with chickens raised on acidified litter. Poult. Sci. 81: 1473–1477.
Moore, P. A. Jr., T. C. Daniel, D. R. Edwards, and D. M. Miller. 1996. Evaluation of chemical amendments to reduce ammonia volatilization from poultry litter. Poult. Sci. 73:315–320.
Pope, M. J., and T. E. Cherry. 2000. An evaluation of the presence of pathogens on broilers raised on poultry litter treatment-treated litter. Poult. Sci. 79:1351–1355.
This article has been cited by other articles:
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  M. J. Rothrock Jr., K. L. Cook, J. G. Warren, and K. Sistani The Effect of Alum Addition on Microbial Communities in Poultry Litter Poult. Sci., August 1, 2008; 87(8): 1493 - 1503. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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