| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
|
|
|
|||||||
|
|||||||||
IMMUNOLOGY, HEALTH, AND DISEASE |
* Department of Animal and Wildlife Sciences, and Department of Pharmacology, University of Pretoria, South Africa, 0002; and Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri-Columbia, 65205
1 Corresponding author: christinejvr{at}up.ac.za
 |
ABSTRACT |
|---|
 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
Key Words: broiler • humic acid • oxihumate • aflatoxin binder
|
INTRODUCTION |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
Unfortunately, discontinuing the feeding of aflatoxin-contaminated grain is not always practical, especially when alternate feedstuffs are not readily available or affordable (Ramos et al., 1996b). A variety of physical, chemical, and biological techniques for mycotoxin decontamination of agricultural commodities have been used, but they have had limited success (Doyle et al., 1982). One of the most practical approaches is the use of nonnutritive adsorbents, which bind the mycotoxins and inhibit their absorption from the gastrointestinal tract, thus minimizing the toxic effects in livestock and the carryover of these fungal metabolites into animal products (Ramos et al., 1996a). Aluminosilicates; activated charcoal; polymers, such as cholestyramine and polyvinylpyrrolidones; and yeast and yeast products have been extensively studied with promising, but varying, results (Huwig et al., 2001). For an adsorbent to successfully prevent the absorption of aflatoxins from the gastrointestinal tract, it should have a high affinity for aflatoxin, resulting in the formation of a strong complex with little risk of dissociation. The adsorbent should also have a high binding capacity, to prevent saturation (Ramos and Hernández, 1996).
Humic acids are ubiquitous and are found wherever matter is being decomposed or has been transposed, as in the case of sediments. Humic substances have demonstrated a strong affinity to bind various substances, such as heavy metals (Madronová et al., 2001), herbicides (Nègre et al., 2001), different mutagens (Sato et al., 1987; Cozzi et al., 1993), monoaromatic (Nanny and Maza, 2001) and polycyclic aromatic compounds (Kollist-Siigur et al., 2001), minerals (Elfarissi and Pefferkorn, 2000), and Bacillus subtilis bacteria (Fein et al., 1999). In spite of its known binding characteristics, humic acids have never been evaluated previously as a mycotoxin adsorbent.
Enerkom (Pty.) Ltd. (Pretoria, South Africa) developed an effective large-scale process to regenerate pure, high-quality humic acids from bituminous coal by reversing the process whereby the coal was formed. Humic acids produced in this manner, called oxihumates, differ only slightly chemically from humic acids obtained from other sources (Bergh et al., 1997).
The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of oxihumate as an aflatoxin binder, both in vitro and in vivo. The binding capability of oxihumate for AFB1 was tested, and the Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherms of oxihumate were determined for AFB1 to describe surface adsorption (Ramos and Hernández, 1996). The second objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of oxihumate on growth performance, liver morphology, and serum biochemical and hematological variables in broiler chickens exposed to aflatoxins.
|
MATERIALS AND METHODS |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
The binding of oxihumate [Enerkom (Pty.) Ltd.] to AFB1 (Sigma-Aldrich Inc., St. Louis, MO) was determined under different pH conditions, and a study of the Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherms was carried out. Primary stock solutions of 1,000 mg of AFB1/L of methanol were prepared. Oxihumate was weighed into clean, 15-mL screw-cap test tubes, and 10 mL of 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 3, 5, or 7), containing 2 mg/L of AFB1, was added to the tubes. To correct for possible exogenous peaks, controls were prepared by adding 10 mL of 0.1 M phosphate buffer plus 100 mg of adsorbent to test tubes. The tubes were vortexed, shaken for 30 min at room temperature, and centrifuged at 675 x g for 5 min. The aqueous supernatants were analyzed for AFB1 levels by HPLC, which was performed by a Perkin-Elmer 250 pump (Perkin-Elmer Life and Analytical Sciences Inc., Wellesley, MA) with a Perkin-Elmer ISS-200 autosampler (Perkin-Elmer Life and Analytical Sciences Inc.), fluorescence detection (excitation wavelength of 365 nm and emission wavelength of 430 nm) with a Hitachi F1200 fluorescence spectrophotometer (Hitachi High Technologies America Inc., San Jose, CA), and ultraviolet detection with a Perkin-Elmer LC-90 detector (Perkin-Elmer Life and Analytical Sciences Inc.). Separations were achieved on a 100 x 4.6 mm Hypersil BDS 3-µm C18 column (Phenomenex, Torrance, CA) or a Perkin-Elmer 3-cm C18 column (3-µm particle size, Perkin-Elmer Life and Analytical Sciences Inc.). A water:MeOH:isopropanol (40:17:2) mobile phase was pumped at 1 mL/min. Percentage of AFB1 bound was calculated from the difference between the initial and final concentration in the aqueous supernatant. All samples were run in triplicate. An aliquot of the original buffered AFB1 test solution was used as standard.
Experiment 2.
The binding of AFB1 by oxihumate was determined when mixed with a commercial poultry feed to simulate practical conditions. If a high proportion of oxihumate was bound by the feed, it could inhibit the adsorption of AFB1 by oxihumate. Oxihumate and feed were weighed into clean, 15-mL screw-cap test tubes at a concentration of 3.5 g of oxihumate/kg of feed. Ten milliliters of 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 3 or 7) was added to the tubes. The tubes were vortexed and shaken for 30 min at room temperature to allow binding of oxihumate to the feed. Aflatoxin B1 was then added to the tubes at a final concentration of 2 mg/L. The tubes were vortexed, shaken, and centrifuged at 675 x g for 5 min. The aqueous supernatant was analyzed for aflatoxin levels by HPLC, as previously described. All tests were run in triplicate.
Experiment 3.
The stability of the aflatoxin–oxihumate adsorption complex in the presence of a series of solvents was determined. Ten milligrams of oxihumate was weighed into clean, 15-mL screw-cap test tubes, and 10 mL of 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 3), containing 2 mg/L of AFB1, was added to each tube. The tubes were vortexed, shaken, and centrifuged at 675 x g for 5 min. The aqueous supernatants were removed, and 10 mL of chloroform, acetonitrile, or acetone were added. After centrifugation, 5 mL of solvent was removed and evaporated. One milliliter of methanol was added to each tube and vortexed, after which 4 mL of buffer (pH 3) was added to restore the original volume. Samples were analyzed for AFB1 levels by HPLC, as previously described. All tests were run in triplicate.
In Vivo Study
Aflatoxin Production.
Aspergillus parasiticus strain NRRL 2999 (kindly donated by W.M. Hagler, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh) was grown on rice, as described by Shotwell et al. (1966). This strain is very stable and consistently yields high levels of aflatoxin, especially AFB1, even after many transfers. Fermented rice was autoclaved to stop fungal growth and dried in stainless steel pans in a forced-air oven at 40° C for 24 h. After several batches of aflatoxin-contaminated rice were produced, it was ground, thoroughly mixed, and tested for aflatoxin levels by HPLC, as previously described. The ground rice was added to the ration to provide the required AFB1 level. The concentration of ground rice culture material never exceeded 1% of the total diet.
Pilot Studies.
After a pilot trial to determine the oxihumate inclusion level, 3.5 g of oxihumate/kg of feed was chosen as dietary concentration for the main trial, as it showed the same efficacy against the effects of 2 mg of AFB1/kg of feed as the higher levels (data not shown). A toxicity study was conducted, in which 120 Ross broilers were divided into 2 treatments groups, with 4 replicates per treatment and 15 birds per replicate. One group received a commercial broiler ration with 3.5 g of oxihumate/kg of feed added, and the other group received the same ration without oxihumate. Parameters measured in this study included BW gain, hematocrit, serum profile (albumin, globulin, total protein, and 
-glutamyltransferase), and mortality rate.
Experimental Design, Birds, and Diets.
A total of 500 d-old male Ross 788 chicks were adapted for a 7-d period before commencement of the trial. During this period, the birds were submitted to conventional broiler chicken management and housed in floor pens in an environmentally controlled broiler house with litter floors. They received a commercial broiler starter diet formulated to meet or exceed the nutritional requirements of broilers, as recommended by the NRC (1994). This diet, as well as all basal diets used subsequently, was analyzed and tested negative for aflatoxins. Day-old chicks were spray-vaccinated against infectious bronchitis and Newcastle disease, but no further vaccination was applied during the trial. At 7-d of age, 420 chicks of similar weight were randomly assigned to 28 clean pens in the same broiler house used for the adaptation period. Birds were maintained on a 23L:1D schedule and allowed to consume feed and water ad libitum. Air temperature was controlled according to Ross recommendations. The basal diet used throughout the study was a 3-phase commercial corn and soybean meal-based ration, formulated to meet or exceed the nutritional requirements of broilers, as recommended by the NRC (1994) and contained a coccidiostat. The birds were divided into 7 treatment groups, with 4 replicates per treatment and 15 birds per replicate. Three levels of AFB1 were used (0, 1, and 2 mg of AFB1/kg of feed). The AFB1-contaminated diets contained either no additives, 3.5 g of oxihumate/kg of feed, or 3.5 g of a well-known commercially available adsorbent with a brewers dried yeast (BDY) and brewers fermentation solubles as main active ingredients per kilogram of feed. This product is also known as yeast glucomannan (Karaman et al., 2005), esterified glucomannan (Raju and Devegowda, 2000; Aravind et al., 2003; Diaz et al., 2005) or modified glucomannan (Dvorska et al., 2003) in the literature.
The oxihumate, BDY, and aflatoxin-contaminated rice powder were mixed into the different treatment diets to required concentrations. Samples were collected from each treatment and analyzed, as previously described, for confirmation of AFB1 levels.
The experiment was terminated when the broilers were 42 d of age. The birds were weighed weekly, and mortalities were recorded as they occurred.
Hematological and Serological Analysis.
On d 38, all chicks were bled by puncture of the brachial vein. Whole blood was collected in EDTA blood tubes for hematocrit determination, using a Jouan microhematocrit centrifuge (Scientific Group, SA Scientific Products Pty. Ltd. Trading, Johannesburg, South Africa). Another blood sample was collected from all birds in tubes without anticoagulant. Serum was obtained from these samples and analyzed for serum albumin, total serum protein, -glutamyltransferase (E.C. 2.3.2.2
[EC]
), and aspartate aminotransferases (E.C. 2.6.1.1
[EC]
) with a Technicon RA-1000 system (Miles Inc., Diagnostics Division, Tarrytown, NY) according to standard procedures, as described by Technicon RA Systems (1994).
Histopathology.
At the termination of the study at 42 d, all chicks were killed by cervical dislocation, and the liver, heart, proventriculus, and gizzard were removed and weighed. The contents of the proventriculus and gizzard were removed before weighing to determine the stomach weight. The organ weights were expressed as a percentage of BW.
Samples of the right liver lobe of all birds were fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin and examined for liver lesions by the Pathology Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Onderstepoort, South Africa, using standard histological and staining techniques. The evaluation was done as a double-blinded study. Two opposite sections of all formalin fixed samples were examined and macroscopically judged for color after formalin fixation. The microscopic appearance of the samples was evaluated for fatty degeneration, hepatocyte necrosis, bile-duct proliferation, fibrosis, architectural disturbances, anisonucleosis, chromatin margination, prominent nucleoli, mitosis, nodular hyperplasia, and heterophil and lymphocyte aggregation. The degree of severity of each of the different lesion types was expressed as 0 (no lesions), 1 (mild), 2 (moderate), or 3 (severe). The sum of the numeric values of all the lesions together for each sample was used for statistical analysis to compare treatment groups.
Ethical Approval.
Ethical approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria (EC010607
[GenBank]
-006).
Statistical Analysis.
For BW data, a repeated measure ANOVA with the GLM model (SAS Institute, 1994) was used to determine the significance (5%) between treatment and pens within treatment effects for the repeated weekly BW. Least square means and ± SE were calculated.
For all other measurements, an ANOVA with the GLM model (SAS Institute, 1994) was used to determine the significance between treatment and pens within treatment effects for the unbalanced data. Least square means and ± SE were calculated for treatments. Significance of difference (5%) among least square means was determined by the Bonferroni test (Samuels, 1989).
|
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
In Vitro Study
Aflatoxin is a relatively low molecular-weight, lipophilic molecule that appears to be absorbed rapidly (Kumagai, 1989) and completely (Wogan et al., 1967) from the gastrointestinal tract. Adsorbents used to hinder the gastrointestinal absorption of mycotoxins should have a high affinity for the specific mycotoxins, resulting in the formation of a strong complex to minimize the risk of any rupture of the complex. The chosen compound should also have a high capacity to prevent saturation (Ramos and Hernández, 1996).
The adsorption and equilibrium concentrations of AFB1 in solution at room temperature and at different pH levels for different levels of oxihumate are presented in Table 1
. Each value is the average of 2 replicates compared with a control without added oxihumate. These data were used to obtain the Langmuir and Freundlich oxihumate adsorption isotherm parameters for AFB1 at pH 3, 5, and 7 at room temperature. The Freundlich oxihumate adsorption isotherm fits the data better than the Langmuir oxihumate isotherm, as demonstrated by the higher coefficients of determination values obtained (Table 2). According to Ramos and Hernández (1996), this might indicate the presence of adsorption centers within the oxihumate with different affinities for aflatoxin, resulting in a heterogeneous adsorbent surface or the coexistence of different adsorption mechanisms. Adsorptions of 10.3, 7.4, and 11.9 mg of AFB1/g of oxihumate at pH 3, 5, and 7, respectively, were calculated. According to Decker and Corby (1980), activated charcoal adsorbed at a rate of 10 mg of AFB1/g, whereas a gram of montmorillonite silicate was able to adsorb about 1 mg of AFB1 at pH 7 (Ramos and Hernández, 1996). In contrast, the maximum AFB1 adsorption capacity of a sodium bentonite from Southern Argentina was estimated to be 45 mg/g at pH 2 (Rosa et al., 2001).
|
|
In Vivo Study
Aflatoxins were produced by fermentation of rice by the NRLL 2999 strain of Aspergillus parasiticus, under constant stirring and controlled temperature. A total of 1,116 mg of aflatoxin/kg of rice material was obtained, containing 82.6% AFB1, 3.2% aflatoxin B2, 13.6% aflatoxin G1, and 0.7% aflatoxin G2.
For the toxicity study, no significant differences were noted between birds receiving oxihumate and those who did not receive oxihumate, for all parameters measured (Table 3). The effect of BDY alone was not studied in this trial, but results from previous trials on similar products revealed conflicting results. Raju and Devegowda (2000) found that the additive included at 1 g/kg of feed did not affect BW, feed intake, feed conversion ratio, organ weight, total serum protein, total serum cholesterol, blood hemoglobin, or activity of the serum enzymes, -glutamyltransferase, alanine aminotransferase, and aspartate aminotransferase of broilers at 35 d of age. Aravind et al. (2003), however, reported that 0.5 g of a similar product per kilogram of feed resulted in an increased BW, improved feed conversion ratio, increased kidney weight, and increased total serum protein and cholesterol levels in broilers at 35 d of age. Serum enzyme activity, hemoglobin, and hematocrit were not affected by the feed additive.
|
show the effect of dietary treatments on BW. A concentration of 1 mg of AFB1/kg of feed did not affect the BW and, thus, growth of the broilers up to 42 d of age. However, the 2 mg of AFB1/kg of feed level depressed growth, with significantly lower BW evident from an age of 21 d on, 2 wk after intake of the contaminated feed commenced. The reduction in weight gain continued throughout the study. These results support various researchers, who found that aflatoxin ingestion inhibits growth in chickens (Ledoux et al., 1999; Miazzo et al., 2000). The decrease in BW gain caused by the addition of 2 mg of AFB1/kg of feed was diminished at 42 d of age by the addition of 3.5 g of oxihumate/kg of feed to the diet. In the present study, no indication of any improvement in weight gain was observed when the chicks consumed diets containing aflatoxin plus BDY, contrary to the report of Stanley et al. (1993).
|
) indicate that the relative weights for the livers were significantly increased by almost 75% for the chicks consuming diets contaminated with 2 mg of AFB1/kg of feed. The livers of these chicks also appeared to be friable and pale yellow as a result of fat accumulation in the cytoplasm of the hepatocytes. Oxihumate showed significant protective effects with respect to liver damage, as indicated by an inhibition of liver enlargement. Microscopically, aflatoxin ingestion had a pronounced dose-response effect on the quantity and severity of hepatic lesions, with a lesion value of 1.75 for the controls, 4.13 for the broilers that received 1 mg of AFB1/kg of feed, and 9.60 for the treatment group that received 2 mg of AFB1/kg of feed (Table 5). Supplementation of oxihumate improved the liver lesion value of the latter significantly, to 6.30. Brewers dried yeast treatment of the contaminated diets did not show any positive effect on liver enlargement or liver lesion values.
|
). Mycotoxins have been known to irritate the proventriculus and gizzard of the gastrointestinal tract, thus causing an increase in the relative weight of these organs (Huff and Doerr, 1981). The additions of oxihumate and BDY (to a lesser extent) inhibited this effect at the contamination level of 1 mg of AFB1/kg of feed and prevented the enlargement of the heart at 2 mg of AFB1/kg of feed.
Verma and Raval (1991) showed a concentration-dependent increase in the rate of hemolysis, indicating AFB1–induced cytotoxicity, which could be due to lipid peroxidation of plasma membranes, permeability alterations, and cell lyses. According to the data presented in Table 5, 1 mg of AFB1/kg of feed did not affect hematocrit levels of the broilers. Hematocrit was, however, significantly reduced by the treatment that provided 2 mg of AFB1/kg of feed. Oxihumate supplementation to this diet significantly improved hematocrit values, probably as a result of effective adsorption in the gut to reduce the amount of aflatoxin absorption by the body. Brewers dried yeast did not improve the hematocrit of the contaminated birds.
The observed reduction in serum concentration of total protein and albumin in all groups fed aflatoxin (Table 6) indicates impaired protein synthesis in the liver (Tung et al., 1975) caused by the blockage of RNA synthesis (Clifford and Rees, 1967), resulting from the hepatotoxicity seen in aflatoxicosis (Bailey et al., 1998). Albumin and total protein levels in the serum proved to be sensitive indicators of aflatoxicosis in broilers, as significant decreases were observed at 1 mg of AFB1/kg of feed, a level which did not affect BW gain. The decrease in serum albumin levels in broilers that consumed the diet of 2 mg of AFB1/kg of feed with added oxihumate was less profound when compared with the group that received aflatoxin alone. The inclusion of BDY with 2 mg of AFB1/kg of feed in the diet resulted in a significant lower total serum protein level compared with birds that consumed the diet of 2 mg of AFB1/kg of feed without BDY. This may be an effect of BDY on the total serum protein level, although Raju and Devegowda (2000) and Aravind et al. (2003) found that similar products caused an increase in total serum protein. With continued exposure, intrahepatic biliary epithelial hyperplasia occurs in an attempt to regenerate the hepatic parenchyma when the parenchymal cells themselves have lost their capacity. Such hepatobiliary hyperplasia results in a significant increase of alanine aminotransferase, -glutamyltransferase, and total bilirubin (Zaky et al., 1998). Serum -glutamyltransferase enzyme activity is a sensitive indicator of liver disease, whether the disorder involves liver inflammation, lesions, or obstruction to the biliary tract (Kubena et al., 1990a,b). In the present study, serum -glutamyltransferase activity was significantly decreased in birds consuming 2 mg of AFB1/kg of diet (Table 6). This observation is in contrast to studies in which an increase in -glutamyltransferase activity in the serum was reported (Kubena et al., 1990a,b). Neither oxihumate nor BDY supplementation counteracted the observed decrease in -glutamyltransferase. Aflatoxin-contaminated diets in this study did not significantly affect serum aspartate aminotransferase activity (Table 6), which is in contrast to the findings of Huff et al. (1992), in which aflatoxin caused a decrease in the activity of aspartate aminotransferase. Abo-Norag et al. (1995) did not find aflatoxin to have any effect on serum activity of either -glutamyltransferase or aspartate aminotransferase. Raju and Devegowda (2000) and Aravind et al. (2003) reported that no significant effects were noted for BDY on -glutamyltransferase or aspartate aminotransferase activity in the serum of broilers.
|
Results demonstrated that oxihumate was able to effectively bind AFB1 in vitro and was also effective in diminishing the growth inhibitory effects of aflatoxin in vivo. There was apparent protection noted for some of the organ, hematological, and serum biochemical changes associated with aflatoxin toxicity. In this study, oxihumate proved to be much more effective in the amelioration of aflatoxicosis in broilers than the commercially available mycotoxin binder containing BDY. The data suggest that oxihumate may alleviate some of the toxic effects of aflatoxin in growing broilers, and when it is used in combination with other mycotoxin management practices, it might prove to be beneficial in the management of aflatoxin-contaminated feedstuffs for poultry.
Received for publication January 23, 2006. Accepted for publication April 25, 2006.
|
REFERENCES |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
Adav, S. S., and S. P. Godinwar. 1997. Effects of aflatoxin B1 on liver microsomal enzymes in different strains of chickens. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. C Pharmacol. Toxicol. Endocrinol. 118:185–189.[ISI][Medline]
Aravind, K. L., V. S. Patil, G. Devegowda, B. Umakantha, and S. P. Ganpule. 2003. Efficacy of esterified glucomannan to counteract mycotoxicosis in naturally contaminated feed on performance and serum biochemical and hematological parameters in broilers. Poult. Sci. 82:571–576.
Bailey, R. H., L. F. Kubena, R. B. Harvey, S. A. Buckley, and G. E. Rottinghaus. 1998. Efficacy of various inorganic sorbents to reduce the toxicity of aflatoxin and T-2 toxin in broiler chicks. Poult. Sci. 77:1623–1630.
Bergh, J. J., I. J. Cronjé, J. Dekker, T. G. Dekker, L. M. Gerritsma, and L. J. Mienie. 1997. Non-catalytic oxidation of water-slurried coal with oxygen: Identification of fulvic acids and acute toxicity. Fuel 76:149–154.
Clifford, J. I., and K. R. Rees. 1967. The interaction of aflatoxins with purines and purine nucleosides. Biochem. J. 103:467–471.[ISI][Medline]
Coulombe, R. A. 1994. Nonhepatic disposition and effects of aflatoxin B1. Pages 89–101 in The Toxicology of Aflatoxins: Human Health, Veterinary, and Agricultural Significance. D. L. Eaton and J. D. Groopman, ed. Academic Press Inc, San Diego, CA.
Cozzi, R., M. Nicolai, P. Perticone, R. De Salvia, and F. Spuntarelli. 1993. Desmutagenic activity of natural humic acids: Inhibition of mitomycin C and maleic hydrazide mutagenicity. Mutat. Res. 299:37–44.[ISI][Medline]
Dale, N. 1998. Mycotoxin binders: It’s time for real science. Poult. Dig. 57:38–39.
Decker, W. J., and D. G. Corby. 1980. Activated charcoal adsorbs aflatoxin B1. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 22:388–389.[ISI][Medline]
Diaz, G. J., A. Cortés, and L. Roldán. 2005. Evaluation of the efficacy of four feed additives against the adverse effects of T-2 toxin in growing broiler chickens. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 14:226–231.
Doyle, M. P., R. S. Applebaum, R. E. Brackett, and E. H. Marth. 1982. Physical, chemical and biological degradation of mycotoxins in foods and agricultural commodities. J. Food Prot. 45:946–971.
Dvorska, J. E., P. F. Surai, B. K. Speake, and N. H. C. Sparks. 2003. Protective effect of modified glucomannans against aurofusarin-induced changes in quail egg and embryo. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. C Toxicol. Pharmacol. 135:337–343.
Elfarissi, F., and E. Pefferkorn. 2000. Kaolinite/humic acid interaction in the presence of aluminium ion. Colloids Surf. A 168:1–12.
Fein, J. B., J. Boily, K. Güçlü, and E. Kaulbach. 1999. Experimental study of humic acid adsorption onto bacteria and Aloxide mineral surfaces. Chem. Geol. 162:33–45.[ISI]
Huff, W. E., and J. A. Doerr. 1981. Synergism between aflatoxin and ochratoxin A in broiler chickens. Poult. Sci. 60:550–555.[ISI][Medline]
Huff, W. E., L. F. Kubena, R. B. Harvey, W. M. Hagler Jr., S. P. Swanson, T. D. Phillips, and C. R. Creger. 1986. Individual and combined effects of aflatoxin and deoxynivalenol (DON, Vomitoxin) in broiler chickens. Poult. Sci. 65:1291–1298.[ISI][Medline]
Huff, W. E., L. F. Kubena, R. B. Harvey, and T. D. Phillips. 1992. Efficacy of hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate to reduce the individual and combined toxicity of aflatoxin and ochratoxin A. Poult. Sci. 71:64–69.[ISI][Medline]
Huwig, A., S. Freimund, O. Käppeli, and H. Dutler. 2001. Mycotoxin detoxification of animal feed by different adsorbents. Toxicol. Lett. 122:179–188.[ISI][Medline]
Karaman, M., H. Basmacioglu, M. Ortatatli, and H. Oguz. 2005. Evaluation of the detoxifying effect of yeast glucomannan on aflatoxicosis in broilers as assessed by gross examination and histopathology. Br. Poult. Sci. 46:394–400.[ISI][Medline]
Kichou, F., and M. M. Walser. 1994. Effects of aflatoxin B1 on chicken chondrocytes in culture. Avian Dis. 38:11–15.[ISI][Medline]
Kinniburgh, D. G. 1986. General purpose adsorption isotherms. Environ. Sci. Technol. 20:895–904.
Kollist-Siigur, K., T. Nielsen, C. Grøn, P. E. Hansen, C. Helweg, K. E. Jonassen, O. Jørgensen, and U. Kirso. 2001. Sorpsion of polycyclic aromatic compounds to humic and fulvic acid HPLC column materials. J. Environ. Qual. 30:526–537.
Kubena, L. F., R. B. Harvey, W. E. Huff, D. E. Corrier, T. D. Phillips, and G. E. Rottinghaus. 1990a. Efficacy of a hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate to reduce the toxicity of aflatoxin and T-2 toxin. Poult. Sci. 69:1078–1086.[ISI][Medline]
Kubena, L. F., R. B. Harvey, T. D. Phillips, D. E. Corrier, and W. E. Huff. 1990b. Diminution of aflatoxicosis in growing chickens by dietary addition of a hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate. Poult. Sci. 69:727–735.[ISI][Medline]
Kumagai, S. 1989. Intestinal absorption and excretion of aflatoxin in rats. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 97:88–97.[ISI][Medline]
Langmuir, I. 1916. The constitution and fundamental properties of solids and liquids. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 38:2221–2294.
Ledoux, D. R., G. E. Rottinghaus, A. J. Bermudez, and M. Alonso-Debolt. 1999. Efficacy of a hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate to ameliorate the toxic effects of aflatoxin in broiler chicks. Poult. Sci. 78:204–210.
Madronová, L., J. Kozler, J. Cezíková, J. Novák, and P. Jano
. 2001. Humic acids from coal of the North-Bohemia coal field. III. Metal-binding properties of humic acids—measurements in a column arrangement. React. Func. Polym. 47:119–123.
Marquardt, R. R. 1996. Effects of molds and their toxins on livestock performance: A western Canadian perspective. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 58:77–89.
Miazzo, R., C. A. R. Rosa, E. C. Q. Carvalho, C. Magnoli, S. M. Chiacchiera, G. Palacio, M. Saenz, A. Kikot, E. Basaldella, and A. Dalcero. 2000. Efficacy of synthetic zeolite to reduce the toxicity of aflatoxin in broiler chicks. Poult. Sci. 79:1–6.
Nanny, M. A., and J. P. Maza. 2001. Noncovalent interactions between monoaromatic compounds and dissolved humic acids: A deuterium NMR T1 relaxation study. Environ. Sci. Technol. 35:379–384.[Medline]
National Research Council. 1994. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry. 9th rev. ed. Natl. Acad. Press, Washington, DC.
Nègre, M., H. R. Schulten, M. Gennari, and D. Vindrola. 2001. Interaction of imidazolinone herbicides with soil humic acids. Experimental results and molecular modeling. J. Environ. Sci. Health B 36:107–125.[Medline]
Peers, F., X. Bosch, and J. Kaldor. 1987. Aflatoxin exposure, hepatitis B virus infection and liver cancer in Swaziland. Int. J. Cancer 39:545–553.[ISI][Medline]
Raju, M. V. L. N., and G. Devegowda. 2000. Influence of esterified-glucomannan on performance and organ morphology, serum biochemistry and haematology in broilers exposed to individual and combined mycotoxicosis (aflatoxin, ochratoxin and T-2 toxin). Br. Poult. Sci. 41:640–650.[ISI][Medline]
Ramos, A. J., J. Fink-Gremmels, and E. Hernández. 1996a. Prevention of toxic effects of mycotoxins by means of nonnutritive adsorbent compounds. J. Food Prot. 59:631–641.
Ramos, A. J., and E. Hernández. 1996. In vitro aflatoxin adsorption by means of a montmorillonite silicate. A study of adsorption isotherms. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 62:263–269.
Ramos, A. J., E. Hernández, M. Plá-Delfina, and M. Merino. 1996b. Intestinal absorption of zearalenone and in vitro study of non-nutritive sorbent materials. Int. J. Pharm. 128:129–137.
Rosa, C. A. R., R. Miazzo, C. Magnoli, M. Salvano, S. M. Chiacchiera, S. Ferrero, M. Saenz, E. C. Q. Carvalho, and A. Dalcero. 2001. Evaluation of the efficacy of bentonite from the south of Argentina to ameliorate the toxic effects of aflatoxin in broilers. Poult. Sci. 80:139–144.
Samuels, M. L. 1989. Statistics for the Life Sciences. Collier Mac-Millan Publishers, London, UK.
SAS Institute. 1994. SAS User’s Guide: Statistics. Version. 6. SAS Institute Inc. Cary, NC.
Sato, T., Y. Ose, H. Nagase, and K. Hayase. 1987. Adsorption of mutagens by humic acid. Sci. Total Environ. 62:305–310.[Medline]
Shotwell, O. L., C. W. Hesseltine, R. D. Stubblefield, and W. G. Sorenson. 1966. Production of aflatoxin on rice. Appl. Microbiol. 14:425–428.[ISI][Medline]
Stanley, V. G., R. Ojo, S. Woldesenbet, D. H. Hutchinson, and L. F. Kubena. 1993. The use of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to suppress the effects of aflatoxicosis in broiler chicks. Poult. Sci. 72:1867–1872.[ISI][Medline]
Technicon RA Systems. 1994. Methods Manual. Bayer Corp., Tarrytown, NY.
Tung, H. T., R. D. Wyatt, P. Thaxton, and P. B. Hamilton. 1975. Concentrations of serum proteins during aflatoxicosis. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 34:320–326.[ISI][Medline]
Van Rensburg, S. J., P. Cook-Mozaffari, and D. J. Van Schalkwyk. 1985. Hepatocellular carcinoma and dietary aflatoxin in Mozambique and Transkei. Br. J. Cancer 51:713–726.[ISI][Medline]
Verma, R. J., and P. J. Raval. 1991. Cytotoxicity of aflatoxin on red blood corpuscles. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 47:428–433.[ISI][Medline]
Wogan, G. N., G. S. Edwards, and R. C. Shank. 1967. Excretion and tissue distribution of radioactivity from aflatoxin B1-14C in rats. Cancer Res. 27:1729–1736.[ISI][Medline]
Zaky, Z. M., D. A. Salem, S. S. El-Ballal, and A. M. A. Meki. 1998. Effect of Staphylococcus aureus protein A and Freund’s complete adjuvant on aflatoxin B1 toxicity in broilers. Wien Tierarztl. Monatsschr. 85:43–48.
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
