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ENVIRONMENT, WELL-BEING, AND BEHAVIOR |
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* Probiotic Korea Inc., Daegu University, Gyong San, 712-714, South Korea; and USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Plant Science 115, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville 72701
2 Corresponding author: philipm{at}uark.edu
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Key Words: litter • broiler performance • ammonia emission • soluble reactive phosphorus • total volatile fatty acid
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Nonpoint source P runoff from poultry litter can cause surface water contamination which accelerates the natural aging process (eutrophication) of lakes and rivers. According to Edwards and Daniel (1993), the majority of the P in runoff from pastures receiving poultry litter is dissolved inorganic P (80 to 90%), which is most readily available for algal uptake (Sonzogni et al., 1982). Dou et al. (2002) showed that the potential for P loss on animal farms was closely related not only to the amount of P excreted in manure and applied to fields but also to the solubility of the P in water. Sharpley and Moyer (2000) reported that P leaching losses were highly correlated with the concentration of water extractable P in the manures.
One of the greatest concerns with respect to manure management is odor. Typically odors are produced by anaerobic decomposition of livestock wastes (Mackie et al., 1998). However, most of the organic matter in manure is microbially transformed into nonodorous end products under aerobic conditions (Westermann and Zhang, 1997). Factors that determine odor production from livestock facilities include manure, spilled feed, bedding materials, and wash water (Jacobson et al., 2001). The most significant odorous compounds in manures are volatile fatty acids (VFA; C2 to C9 volatile organic acids) and aromatic compounds (Williams, 1984; Chen et al., 1994; Zahn et al., 1997). Zahn et al. (1997, 2001) found that odor was closely correlated to the concentrations of airborne VFA and volatile aromatic compounds. Kreis (1978) developed one of the earliest lists of volatile compounds associated with odors from livestock and poultry wastes and indicated that poultry, cattle and swine manure consisted of 17, 32, and 50 different compounds, respectively.
In recent years, several studies to determine the relationship between NH3 and odor have been reported. Jacobson et al. (2002) found that by covering manure storage units odors were reduced by 28 to 72%, whereas NH3 emissions were reduced from 75 to 100%. Liu et al. (1993) reported that NH3 emissions are not a good indicator of the odor threshold from manure.
Another important aspect of poultry manure and litter is the amount N available for crop production following land application. Although there are several methods of calculating N availability in litter, no completely satisfactory procedure for measuring the available N content of the poultry litter has been developed. Various measures of N availability include: inorganic N (Bitzer and Sims, 1988) = ammonium + nitrate; organic N (Bitzer and Sims, 1988) = TN (total N) – IN (inorganic N); available N (Knezek and Miller, 1976) = inorganic N + 0.4 x organic N; and predicted available N (Bitzer and Sims, 1988) = 0.8 x inorganic N + 0.6 x organic N
Due to the environmental problems associated with manure cited above, it has become increasingly necessary to focus on new ways to utilize this valuable resource. One way to reduce the impact of these problems is through the use of chemical amendments to manure (Moore et al., 1995, 1996; Dao et al., 2001; Smith et al., 2001a,b). Moore and Miller (1994) first reported that chemical amendments could be added to poultry litter to reduce P solubility. Later work by Moore et al. (1995, 1996, 1999, 2000) showed the addition of alum to litter resulted in several benefits, including reduced NH3 emissions and P in runoff, improved poultry performance, and was a cost-effective practice. Smith et al. (2001a) reported that both alum and AlCl3 reduced NH3 and soluble P levels in swine manure. However, the problem with adding alum to liquid manure, like swine manure, is that H2S gas can form under anaerobic conditions (Smith et al., 2001a). Due to the potential production of H2S, Smith et al. (2001a) suggested that AlCl3 would be a better additive for swine manure because it does not contain sulfate. However, no studies have yet reported the effects of solid and liquid aluminum chloride additions to poultry litter on broiler performance, NH3 volatilization, soluble reactive P, and odor. The objectives of this study were to determine the effects of spraying liquid AlCl3 to poultry litter on 1) broiler performance, 2) NH3 emissions, and 3) litter chemical characteristics, including soluble reactive P (SRP), total VFA, and N content.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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A total of eight hundred 1-d-old broiler chicks (50/50 male/female, Cobb x Cobb) obtained from a commercial hatchery were randomly assigned to 16 pens under simulated commercial conditions at the University of Arkansas Poultry Science Farm. Chicks were vaccinated for Marek’s disease, Newcastle disease, and infectious bronchitis at the hatchery. The experimental facility (single house) was solid-sided and had automatically controlled light and temperature. Ventilation (0.85 m3/h per bird) consisted of a single fan producing negative pressure in the house. Each pen (2.1 x 1.8 m) was equipped with an automatic bell drinker and one tube feeder. Each bird had an area of approximately 0.09 m2. Two flocks of birds were grown; the first simply developed the litter base. Approximately 8 cm of bedding (rice hulls and wood savings) was added to each pen. After the first flock, the litter was tilled and treated with liquid AlCl3 treatments. Standard industry diets were utilized throughout the study, including starter (0 to 14 d), grower (14 to 28 d), and finisher diets (28 to 42 d). Water and commercial mash diets were available ad libitum throughout the experiment. Weekly feed intake, weight gain, and feed:gain were determined as described in Borges et al. (2003) below. Feed intake was calculated by the difference between supplied feed and feed left in each pen. Weight gain was determined as the difference between initial and 21 d, 21 and 42 d, and initial and 42 d of age, respectively. Feed:gain was calculated from the ratio between total feed intake and weight gain in the period for each pen. Mortalities were recorded daily, and body weights were recorded. Mortality percentages were calculated by dividing the number of birds that died in the period by the initial number of birds placed and multiplying by 100 (Borges et al., 2003). The experiment was carried out for 42 d.
Treatments
The trial design was a randomized block design with 4 treatments and 4 replication pens per treatment with 50 birds per experimental unit. Liquid AlCl3 was applied by spraying onto the litter surface using a small hand pump. The rates were as follows: 1) control (normal litter), 2) T1 (100 g of liquid AlCl3/kg of litter), 3) T2 (200 g of liquid AlCl3/kg of litter), and 4) T3 (300 g of liquid AlCl3/kg of litter).
Litter Sampling and Gas Measurements
A litter sample was collected weekly at 5 random locations from each pen. The random litter samples were thoroughly mixed, and 100 g was weighed into a plastic bag and refrigerated until the samples were analyzed. Ammonia fluxes from the litter were measured weekly within each pen at 4 random locations according to the method of Miles et al. (2006). Plastic flux chambers (21 L) that were equipped with a battery-operated fan to stir the air were attached to a photoacoustic multi-gas analyzer (Innova model 1412, Innova AirTech Instruments, Ballerup, Denmark). Ammonia concentrations were measured above the litter surface immediately before placing the chamber, then again inside the chamber after 60 s.
Chemical Analysis
The litter was analyzed for pH, ammonium (NH4), SRP, and total VFA. A 20-g subsample of the litter was extracted with 200 mL of deionized water for 2 h on a mechanical shaker, then centrifuged at 3,687 x g for 15 min (Self-Davis and Moore, 2000; DeLaune et al., 2004). Aliquots were taken for pH, NH4, NO3, SRP, and total VFA. Unfiltered samples were used for pH and were analyzed immediately. Samples for ammonium and nitrate were filtered through a 0.45-µm filter and frozen (Moore et al., 1995). Ammonium was determined using salicylate-nitroprusside technique with auto-analyzer (Technicon Instrumental Systems, Tarrytown, NY) using USEPA method 351.2 (USEPA, 1979). Nitrate was analyzed using the Cd-reduction method, according to APHA method 418-F (APHA, 1992). Nitrate values were very low; hence, nitrate was not reported (Moore et al., 1995, 2000). Soluble reactive P samples were filtered through a 0.45-µm membrane filter, acidified to a pH of 2.0 with HCl, and frozen until analyzed (Moore et al., 1995). Soluble reactive P was determined using the ascorbic acid technique with an auto-analyzer (Technicon Instrumental Systems, Tarrytown, NY) according to the American Public Health Association method 424-G (APHA, 1992). Samples for total VFA were not filtered but were stored at –20°C until analyzed (Kim, 2003). Total VFA were measured using heat distillation method as described by Fenner and Elliot (1963) and Kim (2003). Following the water extraction, exchangeable NH4 in the litter was determined by extraction with 1 N KCl for 2 h. After centrifuging, these samples were filtered and analyzed for NH4 as above (Moore et al., 1995). Subsamples of litter were also analyzed for total N using an elemental analyzer (Vario Max CN, Hanau, Germany). The other N contents in litter were calculated by the following simplified equations: IN (inorganic nitrogen) = NH4-N + NO3-N; ON (organic nitrogen) = TN (total nitrogen) – IN (inorganic nitrogen); AN (available nitrogen) = IN (inorganic nitrogen) + 0.4 x ON (organic nitrogen); PAN (predicted available nitrogen) = 0.8 x IN (inorganic nitrogen) + 0.6 x ON (organic nitrogen).
Statistical Analysis
Statistical analyses of the data were performed as a randomized block design using the PROC GLM of SAS Institute (1990). Significant differences among treatment means were determined using Duncan’s new multiple-range test (Duncan, 1955) at the P < 0.05 level.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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With the exception of the highest rate of liquid AlCl3 (T3 = 300 g of liquid AlCl3/kg of litter), there were no significant differences among control, T1 (100 g of liquid AlCl3/kg of litter), and T2 (200 g of liquid AlCl3/kg of litter) in feed intake and weight gain at any age (Table 1
). However, feed intake and weight gain tended to be greater in the low liquid AlCl3 treatments. No significant differences in feed conversion (the feed:gain ratio) and mortality were observed among all treatments in all ages.
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In contrast to our expectations, our findings from T3 were not consistent with the findings of Moore et al. (2000). Despite T3 resulting in lower feed intake and feed conversion during all periods, weight gains for broilers raised on T3 tended to be lower than that of broilers raised on control, T1, and T2. One observation made during this study was there were several birds grown on the litter treated with the high rate of liquid AlCl3 (T3) that had limping problems. Liquid AlCl3 is a sticky substance and appeared to have caused leg problems, at least at this high rate. The exact cause of this is unknown.
pH and Ammonia Volatilization from Poultry Litter
Litter pH and NH3 fluxes were lowered (P < 0.05) in all liquid AlCl3 treatments compared with the controls during 6 wk (Figure 1A and 1B). No significant differences in NH3 fluxes existed among T1, T2, and T3 at 5 and 6 wk. As seen in Figure 1B, NH3 fluxes for T1, T2, and T3 initially increased at 1 through 4 wk, then abruptly decreased at 5 and 6 wk. These fluxes were related to litter pH. At 6 wk, litter pH values were 8.04, 7.71, 7.69, and 7.42 for control, T1, T2, and T3, respectively. Ammonia fluxes at 6 wk had been reduced by 63, 76, and 76%, compared with the controls, for T1, T2, and T3, respectively.
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Soluble Reactive Phosphorus in Poultry Litter
Soluble reactive P concentrations in litter were reduced by all liquid AlCl3 treatments compared with the control, except during wk 4 (Figure 2). Reductions of SRP concentrations for the T1, T2, and T3 treatments at 6 weeks were 24, 30, and 36%, respectively. This is also supported by Shreve et al. (1995, 1996), Moore et al. (2000), and Dao et al. (2001), who reported that Al, Ca, and Fe amendments reduced soluble P in animal manures. Shreve et al. (1995) reported that alum-treated litter lowered P concentrations in runoff by 87 and 63% compared with untreated litter for the first and second runoff events, respectively. Work done by Smith et al. (2001a) showed that alum and AlCl3 treatments produced reduced SRP concentrations in runoff by as much as 84% compared with normal manure and were not statistically different from SRP concentrations in runoff from unfertilized control plots. Choi (2004) recently reported that concentrations of SRP were 83% lower for AlCl3 (200 g/kg of rice hulls) treated litter. Moore et al. (1998, 1999) explained that one of the reasons alum was chosen for P control in poultry litter was because aluminum phosphates were stable over a very wide range of pH conditions.
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In this study, total VFA concentrations were reduced by all liquid AlCl3 treatments in the litter over time (Figure 3). However, there was not a significant difference among all treatments at 1 week. The range of total VFA values for control, T1, T2, and T3 treatment at 6 weeks were 10.3, 8.2, 5.1, and 5.1 mM/100 g of litter, respectively. When compared with the controls at 6 weeks, T1, T2, and T3 resulted in reduction in total VFA concentrations from litter by as much as 20, 50, and 51%, respectively. The mechanism of liquid AlCl3 treatments with respect to reducing VFA production is uncertain. At present, we hypothesize that it was due to the pH effect of AlCl3 (acid-forming compound), which would inhibit microbial growth and activity in poultry litter (Wilson, 2000; Line, 2002).
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Estimating Available N in Poultry Litter
Total N, IN, ON, AN, and PAN contents from liquid AlCl3 treated and untreated litter as a function of time are illustrated in Figure 4 (panels A through E). The TN values of treatments including control in Figure 4A were significantly different at 0, 2, and 6 wk, whereas there was no difference among all treatments at 1, 3, 4, and 5 wk. However, TN tended to increase as the rate of AlCl3 increased. There were significant differences in IN among all treatments except for at 5 weeks. The highest N contents (both TN and IN) were typically observed in the T3 treatment, while the control treatment had the lowest TN and IN contents. These differences in N content are due to a reduction in NH3 emissions with liquid AlCl3. The effects of liquid AlCl3 treatments on N content in this study are also consistent with those observed by Moore et al. (1995, 1999) and Shreve et al. (1995). These studies showed that the addition of alum at the higher rate resulted in a doubling of the N concentration in the litter, which would greatly increase the value of poultry litter as a fertilizer source as well as improve crop yield.
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). The data from the present study contrasts with that of Choi and Nahm (2004), who observed that addition with ferrous sulfate and alum to poultry litter resulted in higher ON compared with the controls.
Inorganic N represented 11 to 66% of the TN contents from control and all liquid AlCl3 treatments (Figure 4A and 4B), whereas the percentage ON of TN contents from control and all liquid AlCl3 treatments ranged from 33 to 90% (Figure 4A and 4C). These data are very similar to those reported by Sims (1986, 1987) and Chadwick et al. (2000). Several workers have reported that the largest fraction of N in poultry manure is usually in the organic fraction, whereas about 20 to 40% of the total N in poultry manure is in the inorganic form (Sims, 1986, 1987; Westermann et al., 1987). The content of NH4 and mineralizable organic N fraction (plant-available N) in manure, and litter plays an important role in determining the value of animal wastes as N fertilizer.
Predicted available N contents followed similar trends to AN, with the liquid AlCl3 treated litter having the highest PAN (Figure 4D and 4E). Significant differences were observed (P < 0.05) among all treatments in AN and PAN contents except at 4 wk for AN. There were no significant differences among T1, T2, and T3 in both AN and PAN at 4 and 5 wk. The lowest AN and PAN contents among all treatments were control treatments that ranged from 8.9 g/kg at 0 wk to 12.7 g/kg at 6 wk for AN and from 11.1 g/kg at 0 wk to 13.3 g/kg at 6 wk for PAN. The T3 treatment had the highest AN and PAN contents. One of the important facts from this data are that the AN and PAN contents may be elevated when TN and IN contents are higher due to liquid AlCl3 treatments (Figure 4A, B, D, and E). These results were somewhat consistent with other research using these equations for estimating N content of poultry litter, AN and PAN contents from ferrous sulfate and alum-treated litter increased (Choi and Nahm, 2004). The N availability indices, such as AN and PAN, indicate that crop yields should be higher with litter treated with AlCl3, as has been found for alum-treated litter (Shreve et al., 1995; Moore and Edwards, 2005).
Conclusions
In conclusion, additions of liquid AlCl3 to broiler litter resulted in lower litter pH, which reduced NH3 emissions. Lower N losses resulted in higher contents in litter, including total and inorganic N, along with higher amounts of available N. This additional N should make litter treated with liquid AlCl3 a better fertilizer. Soluble P levels were also lower in litter receiving liquid AlCl3, indicating P runoff problems should be reduced with this treatment. Likewise, total VFA contents were significantly reduced with liquid AlCl3 (up to 50%), which suggests that odor problems may be less with this treatment.
Unlike prior work involving litter amendments such as alum, there were no benefits in poultry production noted in this study. This may be due to the fact that the atmosphere of all the pens was mixed; hence, reductions in NH3 emissions from one pen would not necessarily translate into improved air quality for those birds. In addition, at the highest rate of liquid AlCl3 there were some obvious limping problems with birds that were probably associated with this treatment. The exact cause of this problem is unknown. Hence, if this treatment is utilized in poultry houses, rates of 200 g/ kg of litter or below are recommended.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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FOOTNOTES |
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Received for publication January 30, 2008. Accepted for publication June 13, 2008.
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