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PROCESSING, PRODUCTS, AND FOOD SAFETY |
Department of Poultry Science, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849
1 Corresponding author: Pat_Curtis{at}auburn.edu
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Key Words: Salmonella • egg • cooking
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Salmonella enterica serotype Heidelberg (SH), like other nontyphoidal salmonellae, appears to be associated primarily with food. An average of 2,180 cases of SH infection were reported annually in the United States between 1993 and 1997, which accounted for approximately 6% of all Salmonella culture-confirmed infections (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1998). A study done by Schoeni et al. (1995) showed the growth and penetration of SH in the egg, and Jones et al. (1995) also found SH on eggshells. In a study conducted by Gast et al. (2004), SH was shown to invade the reproductive tissues of laying hens, and SH could then be deposited inside the developing egg, similar to contamination with SE. It has been difficult to determine whether SH infections are a result of contamination of eggshells or from eating intact eggs contaminated before lay (transovarian transmission). Because of the potential presence of Salmonella in shell eggs, numerous reported outbreaks have been associated with eating raw or undercooked eggs (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1990, 1996a,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, b). Cooking studies done by Humphrey et al. (1989b), Baker (1990), and Tharrington et al. (2003) showed that some, but not all, cooking methods will inactivate Salmonella should it be present.
The purpose of this research was to evaluate current consumer cooking methods for safety. Thus, 7 cooking methods—hard and soft cooked, scrambled, over easy, sunny-side up, poached, and free poached—were chosen to determine whether they were adequate for the destruction of SE and SH. The cooking methods were chosen to simulate cooking techniques in the home. Microbiological tests were used to determine whether a cooking method could be considered safe (for any age or health group), reasonably safe (safe for a healthy person), or unsafe (not safe for consumption).
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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The SE phage types 3, 4, 8, 9a, 22, 23, 24, and 28 and SH phage type 11 were used in the project. These phage types were used because they were isolated from poultry and egg products. For each SE and SH phage type tested, a 106 dilution of a 24-h culture was made by using 10 mL of tryptic soy broth (TSB; Hardy Diagnostics, Santa Maria, CA) as the diluent. A 3-mL aliquot from each of the 106 diluted-culture phage types was combined in a sterile glass bottle to make the Salmonella cocktail used for inoculation of tested eggs. Confirmation of the bacterial level in the SE and SH suspensions was obtained by the spiral plating technique (Microbiology International, Frederick, MD) with plate count agar (Hardy Diagnostics) and brilliant green sulfapyridine agar (BGS; Hardy Diagnostics) that were incubated for 24 h at 37°C before counting colonies. After incubation, the plates were counted by using the spiral function of a Q Count Plate Reader (Microbiology International, Bethesda, MD). The mean population of the SE and SH cocktail on BGS was 4.3 cfu/mL.
Collection and Handling of Egg Samples
The eggs used in this study were large Grade A white eggs purchased from a local supermarket each Monday morning and stored in a refrigerator until they were needed later in the week. Eggs were candled with a Lyon Hi-Intensity Egg Candler (Lyon Electric Company Inc., Chula Vista, CA) to exclude any cracked and leaking eggs from further testing. Acceptable candled eggs were held at 4°C before cooking.
Cooking Methods
All cooking methods used in this study were taken from Tharrington et al. (2003) in an attempt to simulate consumer cooking methods used in the home. Hard- and soft-cooked eggs were prepared by placing a single egg into an empty sterile sauce pan (1.4 L) and adding sterile water until the egg was covered. Eggs were then cooked on a single hot plate (Toastmaster Inc., Macon, MO). The water was brought to a boil, which took about 10 to 12 min, after which the pan was removed from the hot plate and allowed to sit for 15 min for hard-cooked eggs and 5 min for soft-cooked eggs.
Scrambled eggs were scrambled in a frying pan by intermittently scraping the bottom surface toward the center of the skillet with a sterile spatula. This was continued until no visible liquid remained (this took approximately 2 min).
The over easy and sunny-side up eggs were cracked into a preheated sterile 20.32-cm (8-in.) frying pan (heated to at least 121°C) and covered with a glass lid. The hot plate temperature was then switched from high to low. The eggs were cooked until the thick and thin albumen were completely set and the yolk began to thicken (approximately 1.5 min). After this took place, the lid was removed, and the egg was turned over. The lid was then replaced and the egg was cooked for an additional 30 s of cooking. Sunny-side up eggs were not turned after the original 1.5 min.
Poached and free-poached eggs were cooked differently. For the poached method, a 3-cup (711-mL) sterile nonstick poaching pan with insert was placed on a hot plate and the water was brought to a rolling boil (approximately 10 to 12 min). An egg was then removed from the refrigerator and cracked into the poaching insert (the insert was sprayed with a nonstick cooking spray to prevent the egg from sticking and to simulate cooking at home). Immediately after cracking the egg into the poaching insert, the lid was placed on the pan. The hot plate temperature was changed from high to low. The egg was cooked for 5 min, which was the time it took for the thick and thin albumen to set and the yolk to thicken. Free-poached eggs were cracked and dropped into boiling water. The hot plate temperature was reduced from high to low. The egg was cooked until the thick and thin albumen were set (approximately 3 min).
Temperature Measurement and Inoculation Procedures
For hard- and soft-cooked eggs, a hypodermic type K thermocouple (Digi-Sense, Cole-Parmer, Vernon Hills, IL) attached to a Tempest Data Logger (Tangent Systems Inc., Charlotte, NC) was inserted through the eggshell into the large end of the egg through the air cell and into the center of the yolk of the egg with the aid of a Lyon Hi-Intensity Candler (Tharrington et al., 2003). Shells in all the eggs in this study were not surface-sterilized to replicate consumer cooking practices. Super Glue (Henkel Consumer Adhesives Inc., Avon, OH) was then used around the thermocouple to seal the hole in the eggshell. A sterile 21-gauge needle and syringe were used to deposit 0.1 mL of the Salmonella cocktail through the large end of the egg and air cell onto the vitelline membrane. Placement of the inoculua was confirmed with the aid of a Lyon Hi-Intensity Candler. After injection, the hole was sealed with Super Glue.
Scrambled eggs were aseptically cracked on sterile foil and opened into a preheated sterile nonstick frying pan (heated to at least 121°C). Immediately after cracking the eggs into the frying pan, a pipette was used to deposit 0.1 mL of the Salmonella cocktail onto the top of the vitelline membrane of each test egg (2 eggs were used; Tharrington et al., 2003). Eggs were then mixed with a sterile spatula. The temperature of the eggs was measured during cooking with an infrared thermometer (infrared/type K thermometer, Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA) every 5 s in the centermost portion of the pan. After 2 min, the frying pan was removed from the hot plate (Toastmaster Inc., Macon, MO) and the eggs were scraped into a mound approximately 5.08 cm (2 in.) tall. A stainless steel pocket thermometer (Cole-Parmer) was immediately inserted into the thickest portion of the scrambled eggs to obtain the final temperature.
After cracking the over-easy and sunny-side-up eggs into a preheated sterile nonstick frying pan (heated to at least 121°C), a pipette was used to deposit 0.1 mL of the Salmonella cocktail onto the top of the vitelline membrane on the surface of the egg yolk. A wire type K thermocouple (Tangent Systems Inc.) attached to a Tempest data logger (Tangent Systems Inc.) was then placed into the vitelline membrane on top of the yolk, and a glass lid was placed on the frying pan. When the egg was ready to be turned, based on visual endpoint observations, the lid was removed and the thermocouple was gently removed so the egg could be turned. The thermocouple was placed back into the yolk through the cooked albumen, and the lid was replaced for an additional 30 s. The eggs cooked to sunny-side-up doneness were not turned.
Immediately after cracking the egg into the 3-cup (711-mL) sterile nonstick poaching pan insert, a pipette was used to deposit 0.1 mL of the Salmonella cocktail onto the top of the vitelline membrane surface of the egg yolk. A wire type K thermocouple attached to a Tempest data logger was then inserted into the vitelline membrane on top of the yolk, and the lid was placed on the pan. For the free-poached method, a temperature curve was made separately from each set of eggs that was inoculated. For the inoculated eggs, a sterile 21-gauge needle with the syringe prefilled with the Salmonella cocktail was inserted into the large end of the egg through the air cell. The eggs were inoculated in the shell because when the egg was cracked into boiling water, the inoculua could not be deposited on the egg surface. The eggs were aseptically cracked on sterile foil and opened into a ladle, and a type K wire thermocouple attached to a Tempest data logger was inserted into the yolk to record the temperature. The ladle was then submerged into the boiling water and the egg was allowed to cook for 3 min with the lid placed on the pan, as stated in the cooking section.
In-Shell Controls
An in-shell control was used to validate the hard- and soft-cooked and free-poached cooking methods. A sterile syringe prefilled with sterile distilled water was inserted into the large end of the egg through the air cell, and 0.1 mL of sterile water was deposited onto the vitelline membrane of the yolk, using a Lyon Hi-Intensity Candler to confirm placement of the Salmonella suspension or distilled water. After injection, the hole was sealed with Super Glue. Eggs were cracked on sterile foil and opened into a sterile 1,000-mL beaker. The beaker was then covered with a piece of sterile foil, reweighed to obtain the egg weight, and enumerated for aerobic bacteria. A dilution of 1 to 10 was used, based on egg weight, to determine the amount of buffered peptone water (Biotrace, Muncie, IN) to add before mixing. A large mixer (Talboys/ Troemner, Thorofare, NJ) with sterile paddles was used to mix the egg and buffered peptone water dilution for 2 min. A sample (0.1 mL) of the diluted egg was removed and plated onto aerobic plate count (APC) 3M Petri Film (3M Microbiology Product, St. Paul, MN), which was incubated for 48 h at 37°C. The films were read by counting the red positive colonies.
Broken-Out Controls
This control was used to validate the scrambled, over-easy, sunny-side-up, and poached methods. Immediately after cracking the egg into a 1,000-mL beaker, a pipette was used to deposit 0.1 mL of sterile distilled water onto the vitelline membrane on the surface of the egg yolk. The beaker was then covered in a piece of sterile foil, reweighed to obtain the egg weight, and enumerated for aerobic bacteria.
Enumeration and Salmonella Detection
For each cooking method, an APC was conducted to determine the number of aerobic bacteria, if any, that were present after cooking. The lowest detectable level of APC using 3M Petri Films (3M Microbiology Product) is 10 cfu/g. Control eggs were not taken past the enumeration step. Eggs in each cooking method also underwent microbiological testing to determine whether the samples were positive or negative for SE or SH.
Another 0.1 mL was removed from the original diluted egg and placed into 10 mL of Rappaport-Vassiliadis R 10 broth (Hardy Diagnostics). A 0.5-mL sample was removed from the diluted egg and added to 10 mL of tetra-thionate Hajna broth (Hardy Diagnostics, Santa Maria, CA). Both tubes were then placed in a 42°C incubator for 24 h. After 24 h, a 10-µL loopful was removed from each tube and streaked for isolation onto BGS and modified lysine iron agar (MLIA; Hardy Diagnostics).
The 4 total plates (each tetrathionate Hajna broth tube equaled one BGS plate and one MLIA plate; each Rappa-port-Vassiliadis R 10 broth tube equaled one BGS plate and one MLIA plate) were then inverted and placed into an incubator and incubated for 24 h at 37°C. All positive plates (bright pink with colonies for BGS and black colonies for MLIA) were then stabbed and streaked with a sterile needle by stabbing the butt and streaking the slant onto triple-sugar iron agar and lysine iron agar slants and incubated for 24 h at 37°C. Positive tubes for lysine iron agar had a purple slant with a purple butt with or without hydrogen sulfide production. Positive triple-sugar iron agar tubes had a red slant and a yellow butt with or without hydrogen sulfide production. Hydrogen sulfide production produces a black butt with a sulfur smell. A 10-µL loopful was removed from the positives tubes and transferred into a cryovial that contained a mixture of 70% TSB and 30% glycerol that was added to the vial before and was placed into a –80°C ultracold freezer for confirmation at the end of the 3 wk.
The positive samples were confirmed by using Salmonella O Antisera, H Antisera (BD Difco, Rockville, MD), Antiserum Vi group D and group B (BD Difco) to determine whether the positive samples belonged to group O, D, or B Salmonella. Groups B and D were used as controls to ensure that other naturally occurring Salmonella strains were not present and therefore did not confound the research. The positive cryovialed samples were regrown by using a 10-µL loop from each cryovialed sample and were placed into a 10-mL TSB tube to incubate for 24 h at 37°C. This was done 2 more times, after which a 10-µL loopful was removed and plated onto an APC plate. Agglutination was performed by using glass microscope slides. With a sterile plastic needle, a uniform colony was removed from an APC plate and mixed with the Salmonella antisera. The slide was then gently rocked for 1 min with a Fisher clinical rotator (Fisher Scientific). A test was considered positive if the background of the slide was slightly cloudy (coagulation), whereas in a negative test the sample showed no signs of coagulation.
Serotyping
All positive samples were transferred to TSA slants and incubated for 24 h at 37°C. The samples were then shipped under refrigeration to the USDA National Veterinary Services Laboratory in Ames, Iowa, for phage typing.
Statistical Analysis
A completely randomized design was used. An egg represented one experimental unit, except in the case of scrambled egg, where it was 2 eggs. For each of the 7 cooking treatments and controls, 30 eggs were used. The within-treatment effects on the percentage of Salmonella-positive samples were determined with a chi-square analysis by using the PROC FREQ procedure of SAS (SAS Institute, Cary, NC), whereas the total APC were analyzed by using the PROC GLM procedure of SAS. The PROC GLM was used to determine the P-values of each treatment to determine whether there was a significant difference within the weeks (3) of each treatment. Means were separated by using Fisher’s protected least significant differences.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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2.5 log10 cfu/g; the scrambled and over-easy methods had an APC reduction of 2.4 log10 cfu/g; the free-poached method had an APC reduction level of 2.1 log10 cfu/g; and the sunny-side-up method had an APC reduction level of 0.7 log10 cfu/g. The sunny-side-up method had the lowest APC reduction level of all the cooking methods (Table 1
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When the APC were done by using 3M Petri Films, the hard- and soft-cooked methods yielded 
10 cfu/g (Table 1
) and reached 63°C after 9 min of cooking. These results are similar to previous studies done by Licciardello et al. (1965), Humphrey et al. (1989b), Baker (1990), and Chantarapanont et al. (2001), which validated the use of the hard- and soft-cooking methods for eggs as reliable for the inactivation of SE and SH. The results of this study showed that no Salmonella survived the hard- and soft-cooking methods. In fact, after 9 min of total cooking time, eggs from all 3 cooking methods reached 63°C, the temperature that was reported by Tharrington et al. (2003). For the scrambled cooking method, 1 egg out of the 30 that were cooked yielded viable SE phage types 4 and 30. Although phage type 4 was part of the suspension used in this study, phage type 30 was not; it must therefore be assumed that phage type 30 was in the egg before the inoculation. The APC following scrambled cooking was 1.1 log10 cfu/g (Table 1). Baker (1990) stated that scrambled eggs should be cooked for 1 min to be safe, whereas Tharrington et al. (2003) stated that 2 min was needed for the egg to reach the 63°C safe temperature. However, the results of this study showed that 2 min of cooking did not fully inactivate Salmonella. This could be because the variation in scrambling action did not allow all the egg mass to come in contact with the heat source long enough to be evenly heated.
Over Easy
The over-easy method produced no eggs that were positive for SE; however, 1 egg yielded viable SH bacteria. The APC was 1.1 log10 cfu/g (Table 1) and resulted in a final temperature of 82.5°C in the center of the yolk or the coldest part of the egg. Baker (1990) determined that it would take a total of 5 min of cooking time to produce a SE-free egg. The 5-min total time describes the cooking method because the egg is cooked for 3 min and then turned over and cooked for an additional 2 min. The over-easy cooking method used in this study required that the egg be cooked for 1.5 min and then flipped and cooked for an additional 30 s. It could be speculated that an increase in cooking time after the egg was flipped could possibly eliminate the occurrence of Salmonella. When comparing the 2 studies, Baker (1990) produced a SE-free product but used a 5-min total cooking time for the over-easy egg, whereas in this study a 2-min total cooking time was used.
Sunny-Side Up
Sunny-side up was much like the over-easy cooking method except that instead of flipping the egg at 1.5 min, the egg was removed from the heat completely. This method resulted in 19 positive samples out of the 30 samples that were cooked. Of those samples, SH was the most viable, and 16 of these were a combination of SE and SH. The 3 remaining samples yielded viable SE only. Of the SE phage types used, only 4 phage types, 4, 4a, 8, and 23, were recovered and no other phage types that were not in the suspension were found. The APC of the cooked product was 2.8 log10 cfu/g (Table 1) and the final temperature was 58.9°C. Baker (1990) observed that the time needed for complete kill with this cooking method was 7 min. Tharrington et al. (2003) determined that eggs cooked in this manner without the use of the basting technique or a lid being used to cover the cooking pan produced an egg that did not reach 63°C in the recommended time. The results of this study agreed with those of Tharrington et al. (2003) in that Salmonella was not destroyed. The problem with this method is that the top of the egg is never in direct contact with a heat source.
Poached
Poaching with a pan insert resulted in no SE- or SH-positive samples. The APC numbers for the poached cooking method were <1.0 log10 cfu/g (Table 1) and a final temperature of 64.3°C. Using heating curves, Tharrington et al. (2003) determined that cooking for 6 to 7 min produced the acceptable temperature of 63°C. The slight temperature differences could be due to the types of pots or pan inserts and heating elements used. Recommendations for this cooking method are adequate based on the combination of studies discussed.
Free Poached
For the free-poached cooking method, an egg was freely dropped into a pot of boiling water, where it remained for 3 min. Because the egg was dropped into the boiling water freely, the wire would not stay in the egg to measure the temperature. A ladle was then lowered and submerged into the boiling water, and the resulting final temperature was 48.4°C. When the eggs were cooked by using the free-poached method, the temperature of the eggs did not reach 63°C. When eggs were cooked for 3 min, the albumen was set and the yolk had begun to thicken, but the cooking temperature reached only 48.4°C. The free-poached method resulted in 2 positive samples, a SE phage type 4 and a SH. When the APC were done, the cooked egg produced 1.4 log10 cfu/g of remaining viable cells (Table 1). Baker (1990) reported that when this boiling-water method was used, it took 5 min to achieve complete killing of the Salmonella organism. For this study, eggs cooked with the free-poached method were cooked for only 3 min, because this was the amount of time the eggs needed to obtain the characteristics of a cooked free-poached egg. If the free-poached egg had been cooked for 5 min, Salmonella may have been inactivated (Baker, 1990).
It would seem that, based on recovery data, SE phage type 4 was still the most heat tolerant of all the SE samples that were used for the frying cooking methods. It also appeared that because SH was found in both the boiled and fried cooking methods, it could possibly be more heat tolerant than SE. This could lead to future research on SH, considering that both SE and SH can be found in the reproductive tract of chickens.
Conclusions
Findings indicated that the hard-cooked, soft-cooked, and poaching methods were safe (Table 2). The same was not true for the over-easy and scrambled egg cooking methods, in which SE or SH were recovered from the cooked product. The over-easy eggs were positive for SH, and scrambled eggs were positive for SE phage types 4 and 30. Eggs cooked with the free-poached method were positive for SH and SE phage type 4 in 2 of the 30 cooked samples. Given this low frequency of SE and SH recovery, the over-easy and scrambled cooking methods can be considered reasonably safe. The free-poached method could be considered safe if eggs were cooked to the maximum of 5 min. Eggs cooked with the sunny-side-up method had a total of 19 of 30 Salmonella-positive samples after cooking, with some samples having a combination of multiple Salmonella serotypes. The sunny-side-up method should be considered unsafe.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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Received for publication October 11, 2007. Accepted for publication March 28, 2008.
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REFERENCES |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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