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PROCESSING, PRODUCTS, AND FOOD SAFETY |
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* Division of Life Resources, Daegu University, Jilyang, Kyungsan, Kyungbuk, 712-714, Korea; Department of Animal Resources Technology, Jinju National University, Jinju, Gyeongnam 660-758, Korea; and Department of Animal Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, Gyeongnam 660-701, Korea
1 Corresponding author: didgkstnf{at}hotmail.com
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Key Words: garlic bulb • garlic husk • broiler chicken • cholesterol • quality characteristics
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Garlic has rich organosulfur compounds and precursors (allicin, diallyl sulfide, and diallyl trisulfide). The enzyme allinase that is responsible for converting alliin (S-allyl cysteine sulfoxide) to allicin is inactive. When garlic is chopped or crushed, the allinase enzyme present in garlic is activated and acts on alliin (present in whole garlic) to produce allicin (Fenwick and Hanley, 1985; Fenelli et al., 1998). Many studies indicate that allicin is the potentially active component of garlic. These compounds provide garlic its characteristic odor and flavor as well as most of its biological properties and have been identified as having the hypocholesterolemic effect in human and animal products (Silagy and Neil, 1994; Konjufca et al., 1997; Chowdhury et al., 2002).
Animal studies suggested that garlic paste (3.8%), solvent-extracted fractions (petroleum ether, methanol, and water in sequence), or garlic oil equivalent reduced the amount of serum cholesterol by 18 and 23% in broilers and 12-wk-old Leghorn pullets, respectively, when diets were fed for 4 wk (Qureshi et al., 1983b). The dietary garlic paste was effective in reducing the amount of cholesterol in laying hens and egg yolk (Chowdhury et al., 2002). Sklan et al. (1992) observed depressed hepatic cholesterol concentration in chickens when 2% garlic was fed for 14 d. Similar effects of garlic were found in rats fed diets containing either cholesterol or triglyceride (Myung et al., 1982). Garlic extract was fed to 5-wk-old male broilers for 3 wk and exhibited hypocholesterolemic effects, mainly through the inhibition of the key enzymes, such as hepatic 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase, cholesterol 7
-hydroxylase, and fatty acid synthetase in cholesterol and lipid synthesis (Qureshi et al., 1983a). Additionally, garlic and garlic extracts have been shown to have antioxidant activity in various meat types (Yin and Cheng, 2003; Sallam et al., 2004; Tang and Cronin, 2007).
In recent years, consumers have become more conscious of the medicinal properties of garlic and garlic products (Ali et al., 2000; Rivlin, 2001). With the trend toward increased consumption of garlic, the garlic industry produces more byproducts such as husk and stems that are wasted with no further use. However, garlic bulbs yield approximately 760 g of cloves and 240 g of outer and inner husks per kilogram (Qureshi et al., 1983b), which may possess substantive nutritional value such as polyphenols and flavonoid. Nuutila et al. (2002) reported that garlic husk had 7 times greater total polyphenols than garlic bulb, and the nonedible garlic husk had 1.5 times greater radical scavenging activity than the edible part. Bampidis et al. (2005) found no differences in final BW, feed conversion ratio (kg of DM intake/kg of BW gain), DM intake, and carcass yield in lambs fed 60 kg/t garlic bulb or 100 kg/t garlic husk. However, no research material is available on potential growth-promoting effects of garlic bulbs and husks when added to growing broiler diets. Polyphenol compounds found in garlic husk could be an antioxidant source. Thus, the addition of garlic husk to broiler diets could significantly affect chicken meat quality.
Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of dietary supplementation with garlic bulb and husk on the physicochemical and sensory properties of chicken meat.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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In this experiment, 200 male Arbor Acre broiler chickens were obtained at 3 d of age. The diets were formulated to meet or exceed the nutrient requirements of broilers (NRC, 1994). Diets and water could be freely eaten, and lighting was on for 24 h. For the first 3 wk, diets contained 21.5% CP and 3,100 kcal of ME/kg. In the later weeks (wk 4 to 5), diets with 19% CP and 3,100 kcal of ME/kg were fed (Table 1
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A total of 200 birds on d 35 were stunned and slaughtered by neck cutting and exsanguinated in a local slaughterhouse. After slaughter, the thigh muscles were dissected from each carcass, divided into 5 equal portions, placed in sealable plastic bags, and cooled at 4°C. All skin, subcutaneous fat, and visible connective tissues were removed from the thigh muscles before evaluation for different quality parameters.
Proximate Composition
The moisture (method 950.46), CP (method 992.15), crude fat (method 985.15), and crude ash (method 920.153) contents were determined according to AOAC methods (AOAC, 1998). The moisture, protein, fat, and ash parameters of chicken samples were determined in triplicate.
Muscle pH
The pH was measured using a digital pH meter (Model 520A, Orion, Beverly, MA). Approximately 10 g of sample was cut into small pieces and 90 mL of distilled water added. A slurry was then made using a homogenizer and the pH was recorded using a pH meter. The pH meter was calibrated daily with standard buffers of pH 4.0 and 7.0 at 25°C.
Cooking Loss and Water-Holding Capacity
The weight of each sample was taken before and after cooking to determine cooking loss, which was defined as the cooked weight divided by uncooked weight multiplied by 100.
To measure water-holding capacity (WHC) 10 g of ground chicken meat was introduced to a centrifugal pipe and heated for 30 min at 70°C in a water bath. Then, it was cooled to room temperature and centrifuged at 4°C at low speed (1,000 x g for 10 min) to measure the amount of gravy.
Shear Force Determination
Shear force samples were cut parallel to the muscle fiber, heated at 75°C in a water bath, cooled to room temperature, and measured by using a rheometer (CR-311, Sun Scientific Co., Tokyo, Japan). Five specimens of each treatment were measured.
Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances
Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) were determined as described previously by Witte et al. (1970). Fifty milliliters of 20% TBA in 2 M phosphate was added to 20 g of sample, and the solution was homogenized. Fifty milliliters of distilled water was added, and the solution was filtered with no. 1 filter paper from Whatman. Five milliliters of 2-TBA (0.005 M in water) was added to 5 mL of filtered solution, and the solution was stored in the dark at 4°C for 15 h. Absorbance was measured at 530 nm.
Fatty Acid Composition
Fat extraction was determined as described by Folch et al. (1957) using chloroform and methanol (2:1, vol/vol). Eighty milligrams of extracted fat and 0.4 mg of tricosanoic acid methyl esters (0.4 mg/mL of hexane, international standard) were placed in screw-capped test tubes and the solvent was removed under nitrogen. One milliliter of 0.5 N NaOH (in methanol) was added and hydrolyzed for 7 min at 90°C. Then, it was cooled to room temperature over 5 min. Free fatty acids were methylated for 10 min at 90°C with addition of 1 mL H2SO4 (4%) and cooled at room temperature for 30 min. Two milliliters of hexane and 4 mL of distilled water were added, and 1 mL of supernatant was collected and stored in a –20°C freezer until analysis.
To determine the content of conjugated linoleic acid esters and total fatty acids, 0.5 µL of collected sample was introduced to the split-injection port of a gas chromatograph (GA-17A, Shimadzu, Tokyo, Japan). The gas chromatography conditions were as follows. Initial temperature of column was 180°C and increased to 230°C at 1.5°C/min. This temperature was maintained for 2 min, while the temperatures of injector and detector were set to 240 and 260°C, respectively. Each fatty acid was identified in the form of a methyl ester by comparing the retention times with the standard acquired from Sigma (St. Louis, MO). Identification of the peak included fatty acids between 14:0 and 18:3. We adopted the weight percentage of each fatty acid in all detected fatty acids as a measurement value. Fatty acid methyl esters were prepared from the extracted lipid fraction and determined following the method described by Guardiola et al. (1994).
Cholesterol Analysis
Five broilers were randomly selected from each treatment and blood samples were collected from the wing vein using a sterilized syringe. Samples were transferred into vacuum tubes (Becton Dickinson Vacutainer Systems, Franklin Lakes, NJ) and immediately stored at –20°C. Samples were then centrifuged at 2,000 x g for 30 min and serum was separated. The total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) concentration in serum were determined in an automatic analyzer (Hitachi 747, Hitachi Co., Tokyo, Japan) by direct enzymatic kits (Boehringer Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany).
Sensory Evaluation
The sensory panel consisting of students, faculty, and staff of the Jinju National University (Gyeongnam, Korea) was used to evaluate the sensory characteristics of the chicken meat. Panelists (at least 20 untrained, randomly chosen individuals) were selected based on their frequency of meat consumption and willingness to participate in the test. Although untrained, most of the panelists were familiar with sensory testing from previous studies. Cooked chicken thigh samples (2.0 x 2.0 x 1.0 cm) from each treatment were placed in covered glass containers and served warm (35°C) to each panelist one at a time. Panelists evaluated a total of 5 samples every week. The samples were transferred into glass containers (Pyrex with plastic cover) about 30 min before the sensory test started. The panelists evaluated the samples for appearance, hardness, juiciness, and flavor using a 5-point hedonic scale as described by Carr et al. (1999). A score of 1 represented attributes most disliked and a score of 5 represented attributes most liked.
Statistical Analysis
The data were analyzed by ANOVA using the GLM procedure of SAS (SAS Institute, 2002). Duncan’s multiple range test was used to determine the statistical significance among the means (SAS Institute, 2002) at a 95% significance level. All data analysis was performed using SAS for Windows, version 9.1 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC).
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Table 2 shows the effect of the dietary supplementation with different levels of GB and GH on proximate composition of chicken thigh muscle. Moisture and ash contents did not show significant differences among chicken samples (P > 0.05). Dietary supplementation with GB and GH resulted in significantly greater protein content and lower fat content in chicken thigh muscle compared with muscle from birds fed non-supplemented diets (P < 0.05). However, there was no difference between supplementation with GB compared with supplementation GH (P > 0.05). These results are consistent with studies done by Nuutila et al. (2002), who found high amounts of polyphenols, flavonoids, and fiber in both GB and GH. High amounts of fibrous material, such as found in GH, mediate an increase in bile acid excretion, which may explain the ability of fiber to decrease serum lipids (Lia et al., 1995).
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Table 3 shows the effect of the dietary supplementation of different levels of GB and GH on pH, cooking loss, WHC, shear force, and TBARS in chicken. In this study, broiler diet supplementation with 4% GH resulted in a lower pH value in thigh muscle compared with control (P < 0.05). There was a linear decrease in pH with increasing levels of dietary garlic, which was significantly lower in the GH4 treatment. Sallam et al. (2004) similarly found higher pH values in various types of garlic-treated chicken sausages compared with controls. The pH value of meat was increased with garlic supplementation in diets for finishing pigs (Holden et al., 1998). However, the muscle pH value ranged from 5.74 (in diet samples) to 5.94 (in control sample), and all pH values were within the range expected for normal chicken.
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). In this study, different shear force values of chicken samples were expected because researchers had shown that a strong positive relationship between shear force and WHC existed in meat (Joo et al., 1999; Alvarado and Sams, 2000). However, no significant differences were found in cooking loss and WHC among the chicken meat samples for diets with different levels of GB and GH (P > 0.05). The shear force value has a highly variable characteristic depending on many intrinsic and extrinsic factors of the meat and on their interactions (Destefanis et al., 2008). Naveena and Mendiratta (2004) reported a decrease in shear force values by addition of ginger extract in buffalo meat with extensive degradation of muscle fibers and connective tissue. Harris et al. (2001) reported that high levels of vitamin E in meat increased the rate of tenderization. Therefore, the significant decrease in shear force values of the dietary supplementation with GB and GH at different levels could be due to the tenderizing effects of garlic when supplemented to broilers. Dietary supplementation with GH4 resulted in significantly lower TBARS value in chicken thigh muscle compared with muscle from birds fed nonsupplemented diets (P < 0.05). However, there was no difference between supplementation with GB compared with supplementation with GH (P > 0.05). Several antioxidant compounds, mainly polyphenols such as flavonoids and sulfur-containing compounds, have been described in garlic (Gorinstein et al., 2005; Ly et al., 2005). Yin and Cheng (1998) reported that garlic had a stronger inhibitory effect on lipid oxidation in their liposome model. Organosulfur compounds in garlic have been reported to have in vivo antioxidant effects against associated oxidations (Borek, 2001). Therefore, garlic in the diets of broilers is the preparation with greater antioxidant activity and protected lipid oxidation.
Fatty Acid Composition
Table 4 shows the effect of the dietary supplementation with different levels of GB and GH on fatty acid composition in chicken. Fat composition is affected by animal feeding, a fact that is exploited for modification of the meat fatty acid composition, with the best results in single-stomached poultry (Wood et al., 1999). The data on the GB4, GH2, and GH4 treatments showed significant differences, with these treatments having lower palmitic acid contents than the control (P < 0.05). There was a numeric decrease in saturated fatty acids (SFA; %) and an increase in unsaturated fatty acids (USFA; %) with increasing levels of garlic supplementation, and this result was significant in the GH4 treatment relative to the control diet (Table 4). Approximately 60% of the SFA in the US and European diet are obtained from meat (Dupont et al., 1991). In a more detailed analysis from the late 1990s of the fatty acid composition pattern of Americans,, it was shown that palmitic acid was the predominant SFA (Valsta et al., 2005). Culinary traditions and recipes of meat-based foods are an obvious focus if the share of fats from meat and meat products is to be modified or reduced (Papadopoulos et al., 1992). Also, USFA are thought to have beneficial effects on health (Belury, 2002). Methods of supplementation have been applied for this purpose in meat products. Therefore, it is conceivable that dietary supplementation with different levels of GB and GH to increase concentrations of USFA can have beneficial effects on health because the fatty acids in treated samples are relatively unsaturated.
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Table 5 shows the effect of the dietary supplementation with different levels of GB and GH on cholesterol content in blood. The GB4, GH2, and GH4 treatments resulted in significantly lower TC compared with the control diet (P < 0.05). Qureshi et al. (1983a) found a >40% reduction of the activities of HMG-CoA reductase and cholesterol 7-hydroxylase in chickens fed garlic. Plasma cholesterol was reduced by 30% when rats were fed diets supplemented with 2 or 3% garlic powder (Myung et al., 1982). Konjufca et al. (1997) reported that dietary garlic decreased cholesterol levels in broiler chicken plasma, liver, and breast muscle. Also, serum cholesterol concentrations were decreased linearly with increasing levels of sun-dried dietary garlic paste in laying hens for 6 wk (Chowdhury et al., 2002).
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Sensory Evaluation
Table 6 shows the effect of the dietary supplementation with different levels of GB and GH on sensory evaluation of chicken thigh muscle. The control had significantly lower hardness and flavor scores compared with all other samples (P < 0.05). Birrenkott et al. (2000) reported no difference in flavor in eggs from hens consuming up to 3% dietary garlic powder. Their results may be because of differences in supplemental levels, feeding duration, or preparation method. Nassu et al. (2003) reported that an antioxidant such as rosemary directly retards oxidized aroma and flavor. The increase in flavor of ginger-treated samples could be attributed to flavor-producing reactions that occur during cooking (Pawer et al., 2007). The results showed a significant difference in sensory attribute between the treatments. The panelists recorded higher hardness and flavor scores for the samples with garlic supplementation. The results demonstrated that the consumer panelists liked chicken meat from garlic-supplemented diets better than the meat from control diets. Dietary supplementation with GB and GH resulted in a more desirable texture and flavor score and did not affect juiciness.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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Received for publication April 30, 2008. Accepted for publication October 6, 2008.
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